Recognition: Seeing Behind the Disguises of Odysseus
Pallas Athena may be the daughter of the mighty Zeus, and may be a dignified citizen of the legendary Mount Olympus, but the disguise she puts on the Odyssey’s protagonist, Odysseus, did not exactly fool everybody. While Odysseus’ new look as an old, worn out beggar did manage to fool many people in his own household, apparently including his own wife, Penelope, two separate characters on two separate instances do happen to recognize the basileis of Ithaka. These two characters are his old, scruffy dog, Argos, and the senior maid of his estate, Eurykleia. With these two individuals being the rare exceptions, recognition of the wily and battle-tested Odysseus on his return to Ithaka proved to be tough for the residents of the island. Upon deeper examination, however, there may be more than what appears on the surface of the story. How each of these characters go about seeing the true Odysseus may explain why certain characteristics of society exist in Homer’s view, such as kleos, the only things that lives on after a hero dies, and the hierarchical structure of Greek society.
The first obvious scene of recognition occurs in Book XVII of the Odyssey, in which the decrepit Odysseus, led by his swineherd, Eumaios, first approaches the gate of his estate. When an old dog nearby heard the disguised Odysseus speak to his servant, the dog, Argos, pricked up his ears. Despite Odysseus’ divine disguise, the old dog recognized his old master’s voice. Odysseus immediately recognized his old companion, but he could not give away his identity to Eumaios just yet, and had to wipe away a tear in secrecy when he saw the dog’s living conditions.
This excellent description gives the reader a very vivid picture of the poor dog’s horrid living conditions. The obvious question for anyone, not excluding Odysseus, would be how the dog’s caregivers could be so negligent in taking care of Argos. Unfortunately for Argos, his owner, Odysseus, went to war in the midst of the dog’s training, and had been believed dead by nearly everyone in the household. Thus, the servants of the house failed to see any point in taking care of a dog for a person they did not foresee returning home. They left the dog out in cold, neglected to continue his training, and gave him a pile of livestock manure to sleep on outside the estate.
This passage brings up two very important points. First, the fact that poor Argos did not have enough energy to even greet his old master is proof of his extreme maltreatment. While Argos may have been old, he must have been extremely excited to see and hear his old master after such a long absence. Unfortunately, his aforementioned maltreatment deprived him of the necessary energy to do so.
Second, the dog’s demeanor portrays an important facet of the relationship between Argos and Odysseus. Argos attempted to move toward Odysseus with his “nose down, with flattened ears” (17.391). In other words, Argos may be seen as bowing to his master, as a sign of ultimate respect. This seemingly minor detail exemplifies Odysseus’ kleos, otherwise known as his extremely high reputation. Kleos is a very important aspect in any aspiring hero’s life, for it is what remains of a hero after he dies. Odysseus performed heroically in the Trojan War, second to perhaps only Akhilleus, thus giving him a great deal of kleos. He additionally is an extremely special case, because he attains kleos while he is still alive. All other mortal heroes of Greek mythology needed to die in a heroic manner before attaining kleos. For this extremely rare feat, Odysseus has an aura that demands a great deal of respect from those around him. This is evident when Odysseus’ servants and, more noticeably, his dog finally recognize him. Although Argos may not directly be aware of his master’s deeds in the Trojan War, and although he was only a puppy when he last saw him, Argos definitely notices an aura about his master. This aura can only be described as the kleos of Odysseus.
In terms of the story, the entire scene of recognition between Odysseus and Argos also does two things. It signifies just how much time has passed between Odysseus departure from Ithaka and his return home in the guise of a beggar. When Odysseus left, Argos was still a pup, yet to be taken on his first hunting trip. Upon Odysseus’ return, Argos is extremely old and fragile. In fact, once Odysseus turns away from Argos to enter his household, “death and darkness in that instant closed / the eyes of Argos, who had seen his master, / Odysseus, after twenty years” (17.420-422). This long passage of time is important to keep in mind when attempting to understand later scenes in which characters do not recognize Odysseus, such as his son, Telemakhos. Telemakhos was still an infant when his father left for Troy, yet he is at the brink of adulthood when his father returns. It is therefore not a surprise when he does not recognize his own father. This eventually becomes a major factor when Odysseus attempts to reclaim his rightful place as basileis.
In addition to this, the squalor that Argos lives in gives the reader a sense of the current state of Odysseus’ home. Argos’ care was left in the hands of Odysseus’ servants; thus, Argos’ pitiful state is ultimately their fault. One must keep in mind, however, as to why the servants would ever want to disobey their righteous and caring master, Odysseus. Almost everyone in the household has given up on the belief that Odysseus will one day return. They believe that either he has fallen in the long siege of Troy, or has been lost at sea by the doings of Poseidon. Either way, Odysseus is dead, and his former servants are no longer obliged to carry out his orders. The presence of suitors vying for his wife, Penelope, would certainly have contributed to this notion of a dead Odysseus, since a woman must remarry when, and only when, her husband dies. The servants’ utter disregard of Argos highlights this rampant belief, even if, alas, Odysseus is alive and about to make his presence felt by all.
Besides this seemingly small yet significant incident, Odysseus is recognized against his wishes a second time, this time by one of his most loyal servants, Eurykleia. This woman has lived in the estate for a very long time, and even raised the baby Odysseus many years before. Now in old age, the woman is stricken with grief over the supposed loss of Odysseus. After Odysseus confronts Penelope in the guise of the beggar, Penelope orders Eurykleia to bathe who they think is a beggar. While giving these orders, however, Penelope slips in her speech, almost calling the beggar, “Odysseus”. Whatever the motive behind this slip might be, Eurykleia broke down at the sound of this. “Hearing this, / the old nurse hid her face between her hands / and wept hot tears…” (19.422-424). Homer makes the feelings that Eurykleia has regarding her master’s absence very well known to reader in this passage.
As the old woman begins to bathe the beggar Odysseus, something drastic happens. For all of the work that Athena did to disguise Odysseus, she forgot one major, easily identifiable detail: a scar.
At this point, the reader would probably expect an immediate sense of joy to be felt in the heart of Eurykleia, followed by excited screaming and pent-up emotions finally being released into the open. However, Homer decides to go on a sort of digression here. He continues his epic by telling the reader of an incident in which Odysseus, as a young infant, was placed into the arms of his grandfather, Autolykos, by Odysseus’ nurse, Eurykleia.
Autolykos is then asked to name the child, who he names Odysseus. He also promises to give Odysseus plenty of gifts when Odysseus visits his grandfather later as a young man. The next scene seems to take place when Odysseus is a young man, and travels to the home of his grandfather. Here, Odysseus is lavished with gifts and riches, enjoys a bountiful feast with endless amounts of succulent food, and goes on a grand hunting trip with his grandfather and uncles. It is during this trip that Odysseus receives his ghastly scar, given by the tusk of a charging wild boar. Only after Homer recalls this tale does he shift the focus of the story back to Odysseus’ manor, with Eurykleia discovering the identity of the man she is bathing.
Why does Homer retell this relatively lengthy and detailed account of how Odysseus received his scar? Although no one can truly know Homer’s intent, there are a couple of possible answers. First, the tale gives the reader a sense of what Odysseus’ past was like. Nowhere else in the Odyssey is Odysseus’ life prior to his marriage to Penelope mentioned. He is always depicted as the mature, battle-tested warrior and basileis of Ithaka. In this flashback, however, Odysseus is a young man, perhaps untested in battle. On his hunting trip with his relatives, Odysseus in confronted face-to-face with a wild boar, who viciously rips out a piece of flesh from Odysseus’ thigh. Odysseus, however, being the great hero that he is, still had the presence of mind to severely wound the boar with his spear, killing the wild beast instantaneously. This could be an early glimpse of the potential Odysseus displayed in his youth to one day become the superb warrior he portrays in the Odyssey.
Second, Homer may be portraying the type of relationship Odysseus and Eurykleia have. Eurykleia was Odysseus’ fervently loyal and trustworthy nurse, nursing him in his infancy, serving him in his adulthood, and tending to all his needs every moment in between. Odysseus must have a great deal of respect and empathy for the woman who has been with him for his entire life, and Eurykleia must feel the same for him.
This latter point is at play when the present day events of the Odyssey continue with Eurykleia’s reaction upon recognizing the scar of Odysseus. She is understandably very excited to learn of Odysseus’ return, and immediately turns toward Penelope, who is preoccupied by the mysterious workings of Athena. But upon realizing his discovery, Odysseus quickly grabs Eurykleia by the throat with one hand, grabs her hand with his other hand, and sternly tells her:
Though his response may seem harsh and overly severe, there are facets of Odysseus’ response that portrays his positive regards for Eurykleia. He recalls the fact that she nursed him to remind both him and herself of their strong relationship. The fact that he gives her a warning can be seen in a very positive way when considering the fact that he gave no advanced warning to those women under his service that he had killed for their disloyal behavior with the suitors. Plus, he gives Eurykleia the chance to live, rather than kill her immediately, which would have been the only way to ensure that his identity would have been completely safe. (The only other character to recognize his identity so far was Argos, yet he is now dead. Whether this was a mere coincidence or caused by the gods will never be known.) Yet Odysseus decides to spare her life, trusting her with his very integral secret. If his identity were to be revealed prematurely, it may have cost him his life, making his rough and trying journey back home pointless. Eurykleia, however, kept his secret safe until the time was right, allowing Odysseus to reveal his identity according to his own timetable.
Besides furthering the plot of the storyline, this scene between Eurykleia and Odysseus does a couple of things. The scene displays not only the importance of Eurykleia, but the importance of trustworthy and loyal servants in general. Servants such as Eurykleia, Eumaios, and Philoitios, who were all devoutly loyal to Odysseus, were absolutely necessary to the success of Odysseus’ grand return. If Eurykleia had not kept Penelope and the other servants busy during the final battle against the suitors, the outcome of the battle may have differed. Additionally, if Eumaios and Philoitios has not been present at the battle to assist Odysseus and Telemakhos, a number of unfortunate events may have occurred, such as a suitor warning the village about the attack, the servants receiving more weapons from Melanthios, or a suitor wounding or killing either Odysseus or Telemakhos. Fortunately for Odysseus, his loyal servants were there to assist him in his times of dire straits. Homer may also be highlighting the positive aspects of a hierarchical system, which involves both an upper, elite class, and below them, a servant class. In order for a leader to be effective in maintaining his authority, he needs to assistance of loyal servants around him, just as Odysseus needed the assistance of his loyal servants to regain his household.
A final point that may be brought up regarding the two abovementioned scenes of the Odyssey is why the characters who recognize Odysseus of their own accord are who they are. In other words, why is it that Argos and Eurykleia, characters of lowly statuses, are the ones to recognize Odysseus, while characters of higher status, such as Penelope and Telemakhos, are revealed Odysseus’ identity at his discretion? For an answer to this, one must remember the context and environment that Homer’s Odyssey originated in. Homer composed his epic poems (placed tentatively around 750 B.C.) at a time of social stratification. As in his poems, slaves and servants existed in Homer’s lifetime, as did the aristocratic families who took them in as their property (for not all men of Odysseus’ social status had same genuine and caring character as he did). It must also be remembered that Homer’s works were originally only told orally, and were not written down until many years, perhaps generations, after their conceptions. Thus, one can assume that Homer’s epics were not only for aristocratic and noble men of the Greek society. His poems must have been widely popular with the peasants, servants, and slaves as well. Most of the people in this class of society were not literate, and thus storytelling was one of the most popular forms of entertainment. With this audience in mind, Homer included these loyal, lowly figures of Argos and Eurykleia in the Odyssey, and glorified them for their wily abilities to recognize the disguised Odysseus. Homer, being the loyal supporter of social stratification that he is, assigned the servants very important roles with strong moral messages: act cordially toward beggars, treat a guest properly in accordance with the social customs, and, most importantly, remain loyal to your master, no matter how dire the situation may be. Those who heed these messages from Homer will not only be favored by their masters, but also by the gods sitting atop Mount Olympus. By highlighting the importance of characters such as Eurykleia and Argos, Homer makes a point of just how essential these lowly figures are in the Greek society of their time.
The first obvious scene of recognition occurs in Book XVII of the Odyssey, in which the decrepit Odysseus, led by his swineherd, Eumaios, first approaches the gate of his estate. When an old dog nearby heard the disguised Odysseus speak to his servant, the dog, Argos, pricked up his ears. Despite Odysseus’ divine disguise, the old dog recognized his old master’s voice. Odysseus immediately recognized his old companion, but he could not give away his identity to Eumaios just yet, and had to wipe away a tear in secrecy when he saw the dog’s living conditions.
Treated as rubbish now, he lay at last
upon a mass of dung before the gates—
manure of mules and cows, piled there until
fieldhands could spread it on the king’s estate.
Abandoned there, and half destroyed with flies,
old Argos lay. (17.383-388)
upon a mass of dung before the gates—
manure of mules and cows, piled there until
fieldhands could spread it on the king’s estate.
Abandoned there, and half destroyed with flies,
old Argos lay. (17.383-388)
This excellent description gives the reader a very vivid picture of the poor dog’s horrid living conditions. The obvious question for anyone, not excluding Odysseus, would be how the dog’s caregivers could be so negligent in taking care of Argos. Unfortunately for Argos, his owner, Odysseus, went to war in the midst of the dog’s training, and had been believed dead by nearly everyone in the household. Thus, the servants of the house failed to see any point in taking care of a dog for a person they did not foresee returning home. They left the dog out in cold, neglected to continue his training, and gave him a pile of livestock manure to sleep on outside the estate.
Yet despite the twenty years it has been since they have last seen each other, Argos immediately knew Odysseus’ voice the instant the dog heard it.
But when he knew he heard
Odysseus’ voice nearby, he did his best
to wag his tail, nose down, with flattened ears,
having no strength to move nearer his master. (17.389-392)
But when he knew he heard
Odysseus’ voice nearby, he did his best
to wag his tail, nose down, with flattened ears,
having no strength to move nearer his master. (17.389-392)
This passage brings up two very important points. First, the fact that poor Argos did not have enough energy to even greet his old master is proof of his extreme maltreatment. While Argos may have been old, he must have been extremely excited to see and hear his old master after such a long absence. Unfortunately, his aforementioned maltreatment deprived him of the necessary energy to do so.
Second, the dog’s demeanor portrays an important facet of the relationship between Argos and Odysseus. Argos attempted to move toward Odysseus with his “nose down, with flattened ears” (17.391). In other words, Argos may be seen as bowing to his master, as a sign of ultimate respect. This seemingly minor detail exemplifies Odysseus’ kleos, otherwise known as his extremely high reputation. Kleos is a very important aspect in any aspiring hero’s life, for it is what remains of a hero after he dies. Odysseus performed heroically in the Trojan War, second to perhaps only Akhilleus, thus giving him a great deal of kleos. He additionally is an extremely special case, because he attains kleos while he is still alive. All other mortal heroes of Greek mythology needed to die in a heroic manner before attaining kleos. For this extremely rare feat, Odysseus has an aura that demands a great deal of respect from those around him. This is evident when Odysseus’ servants and, more noticeably, his dog finally recognize him. Although Argos may not directly be aware of his master’s deeds in the Trojan War, and although he was only a puppy when he last saw him, Argos definitely notices an aura about his master. This aura can only be described as the kleos of Odysseus.
In terms of the story, the entire scene of recognition between Odysseus and Argos also does two things. It signifies just how much time has passed between Odysseus departure from Ithaka and his return home in the guise of a beggar. When Odysseus left, Argos was still a pup, yet to be taken on his first hunting trip. Upon Odysseus’ return, Argos is extremely old and fragile. In fact, once Odysseus turns away from Argos to enter his household, “death and darkness in that instant closed / the eyes of Argos, who had seen his master, / Odysseus, after twenty years” (17.420-422). This long passage of time is important to keep in mind when attempting to understand later scenes in which characters do not recognize Odysseus, such as his son, Telemakhos. Telemakhos was still an infant when his father left for Troy, yet he is at the brink of adulthood when his father returns. It is therefore not a surprise when he does not recognize his own father. This eventually becomes a major factor when Odysseus attempts to reclaim his rightful place as basileis.
In addition to this, the squalor that Argos lives in gives the reader a sense of the current state of Odysseus’ home. Argos’ care was left in the hands of Odysseus’ servants; thus, Argos’ pitiful state is ultimately their fault. One must keep in mind, however, as to why the servants would ever want to disobey their righteous and caring master, Odysseus. Almost everyone in the household has given up on the belief that Odysseus will one day return. They believe that either he has fallen in the long siege of Troy, or has been lost at sea by the doings of Poseidon. Either way, Odysseus is dead, and his former servants are no longer obliged to carry out his orders. The presence of suitors vying for his wife, Penelope, would certainly have contributed to this notion of a dead Odysseus, since a woman must remarry when, and only when, her husband dies. The servants’ utter disregard of Argos highlights this rampant belief, even if, alas, Odysseus is alive and about to make his presence felt by all.
Besides this seemingly small yet significant incident, Odysseus is recognized against his wishes a second time, this time by one of his most loyal servants, Eurykleia. This woman has lived in the estate for a very long time, and even raised the baby Odysseus many years before. Now in old age, the woman is stricken with grief over the supposed loss of Odysseus. After Odysseus confronts Penelope in the guise of the beggar, Penelope orders Eurykleia to bathe who they think is a beggar. While giving these orders, however, Penelope slips in her speech, almost calling the beggar, “Odysseus”. Whatever the motive behind this slip might be, Eurykleia broke down at the sound of this. “Hearing this, / the old nurse hid her face between her hands / and wept hot tears…” (19.422-424). Homer makes the feelings that Eurykleia has regarding her master’s absence very well known to reader in this passage.
As the old woman begins to bathe the beggar Odysseus, something drastic happens. For all of the work that Athena did to disguise Odysseus, she forgot one major, easily identifiable detail: a scar.
But Lord Odysseus
whirled suddenly from the fire to face the dark.
The scar: he had forgotten that. She must not
handle his scarred thigh, or the game was up.
But when she bared her lord’s leg, bending near,
she knew the groove at once. (19.453-459)
whirled suddenly from the fire to face the dark.
The scar: he had forgotten that. She must not
handle his scarred thigh, or the game was up.
But when she bared her lord’s leg, bending near,
she knew the groove at once. (19.453-459)
At this point, the reader would probably expect an immediate sense of joy to be felt in the heart of Eurykleia, followed by excited screaming and pent-up emotions finally being released into the open. However, Homer decides to go on a sort of digression here. He continues his epic by telling the reader of an incident in which Odysseus, as a young infant, was placed into the arms of his grandfather, Autolykos, by Odysseus’ nurse, Eurykleia.
Autolykos is then asked to name the child, who he names Odysseus. He also promises to give Odysseus plenty of gifts when Odysseus visits his grandfather later as a young man. The next scene seems to take place when Odysseus is a young man, and travels to the home of his grandfather. Here, Odysseus is lavished with gifts and riches, enjoys a bountiful feast with endless amounts of succulent food, and goes on a grand hunting trip with his grandfather and uncles. It is during this trip that Odysseus receives his ghastly scar, given by the tusk of a charging wild boar. Only after Homer recalls this tale does he shift the focus of the story back to Odysseus’ manor, with Eurykleia discovering the identity of the man she is bathing.
Why does Homer retell this relatively lengthy and detailed account of how Odysseus received his scar? Although no one can truly know Homer’s intent, there are a couple of possible answers. First, the tale gives the reader a sense of what Odysseus’ past was like. Nowhere else in the Odyssey is Odysseus’ life prior to his marriage to Penelope mentioned. He is always depicted as the mature, battle-tested warrior and basileis of Ithaka. In this flashback, however, Odysseus is a young man, perhaps untested in battle. On his hunting trip with his relatives, Odysseus in confronted face-to-face with a wild boar, who viciously rips out a piece of flesh from Odysseus’ thigh. Odysseus, however, being the great hero that he is, still had the presence of mind to severely wound the boar with his spear, killing the wild beast instantaneously. This could be an early glimpse of the potential Odysseus displayed in his youth to one day become the superb warrior he portrays in the Odyssey.
Second, Homer may be portraying the type of relationship Odysseus and Eurykleia have. Eurykleia was Odysseus’ fervently loyal and trustworthy nurse, nursing him in his infancy, serving him in his adulthood, and tending to all his needs every moment in between. Odysseus must have a great deal of respect and empathy for the woman who has been with him for his entire life, and Eurykleia must feel the same for him.
This latter point is at play when the present day events of the Odyssey continue with Eurykleia’s reaction upon recognizing the scar of Odysseus. She is understandably very excited to learn of Odysseus’ return, and immediately turns toward Penelope, who is preoccupied by the mysterious workings of Athena. But upon realizing his discovery, Odysseus quickly grabs Eurykleia by the throat with one hand, grabs her hand with his other hand, and sternly tells her:
Will you destroy me,
nurse, who gave me milk at your own breast?
…You found me out, as the chance was given you.
Be quiet; keep it from the others, else
I warn you, and I mean it, too,
if by my hand god brings the suitors down
I’ll kill you, nurse or not, when the time comes—
when the time comes to kill the other women. (19.560-561,564-569)
nurse, who gave me milk at your own breast?
…You found me out, as the chance was given you.
Be quiet; keep it from the others, else
I warn you, and I mean it, too,
if by my hand god brings the suitors down
I’ll kill you, nurse or not, when the time comes—
when the time comes to kill the other women. (19.560-561,564-569)
Though his response may seem harsh and overly severe, there are facets of Odysseus’ response that portrays his positive regards for Eurykleia. He recalls the fact that she nursed him to remind both him and herself of their strong relationship. The fact that he gives her a warning can be seen in a very positive way when considering the fact that he gave no advanced warning to those women under his service that he had killed for their disloyal behavior with the suitors. Plus, he gives Eurykleia the chance to live, rather than kill her immediately, which would have been the only way to ensure that his identity would have been completely safe. (The only other character to recognize his identity so far was Argos, yet he is now dead. Whether this was a mere coincidence or caused by the gods will never be known.) Yet Odysseus decides to spare her life, trusting her with his very integral secret. If his identity were to be revealed prematurely, it may have cost him his life, making his rough and trying journey back home pointless. Eurykleia, however, kept his secret safe until the time was right, allowing Odysseus to reveal his identity according to his own timetable.
Besides furthering the plot of the storyline, this scene between Eurykleia and Odysseus does a couple of things. The scene displays not only the importance of Eurykleia, but the importance of trustworthy and loyal servants in general. Servants such as Eurykleia, Eumaios, and Philoitios, who were all devoutly loyal to Odysseus, were absolutely necessary to the success of Odysseus’ grand return. If Eurykleia had not kept Penelope and the other servants busy during the final battle against the suitors, the outcome of the battle may have differed. Additionally, if Eumaios and Philoitios has not been present at the battle to assist Odysseus and Telemakhos, a number of unfortunate events may have occurred, such as a suitor warning the village about the attack, the servants receiving more weapons from Melanthios, or a suitor wounding or killing either Odysseus or Telemakhos. Fortunately for Odysseus, his loyal servants were there to assist him in his times of dire straits. Homer may also be highlighting the positive aspects of a hierarchical system, which involves both an upper, elite class, and below them, a servant class. In order for a leader to be effective in maintaining his authority, he needs to assistance of loyal servants around him, just as Odysseus needed the assistance of his loyal servants to regain his household.
A final point that may be brought up regarding the two abovementioned scenes of the Odyssey is why the characters who recognize Odysseus of their own accord are who they are. In other words, why is it that Argos and Eurykleia, characters of lowly statuses, are the ones to recognize Odysseus, while characters of higher status, such as Penelope and Telemakhos, are revealed Odysseus’ identity at his discretion? For an answer to this, one must remember the context and environment that Homer’s Odyssey originated in. Homer composed his epic poems (placed tentatively around 750 B.C.) at a time of social stratification. As in his poems, slaves and servants existed in Homer’s lifetime, as did the aristocratic families who took them in as their property (for not all men of Odysseus’ social status had same genuine and caring character as he did). It must also be remembered that Homer’s works were originally only told orally, and were not written down until many years, perhaps generations, after their conceptions. Thus, one can assume that Homer’s epics were not only for aristocratic and noble men of the Greek society. His poems must have been widely popular with the peasants, servants, and slaves as well. Most of the people in this class of society were not literate, and thus storytelling was one of the most popular forms of entertainment. With this audience in mind, Homer included these loyal, lowly figures of Argos and Eurykleia in the Odyssey, and glorified them for their wily abilities to recognize the disguised Odysseus. Homer, being the loyal supporter of social stratification that he is, assigned the servants very important roles with strong moral messages: act cordially toward beggars, treat a guest properly in accordance with the social customs, and, most importantly, remain loyal to your master, no matter how dire the situation may be. Those who heed these messages from Homer will not only be favored by their masters, but also by the gods sitting atop Mount Olympus. By highlighting the importance of characters such as Eurykleia and Argos, Homer makes a point of just how essential these lowly figures are in the Greek society of their time.
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